From: <由 Windows Internet Explorer 7 保存> Subject: The nonsense of 'knowledge management' Date: Sun, 25 Jul 2010 09:31:12 +0800 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/related; type="text/html"; boundary="----=_NextPart_000_0000_01CB2BDC.1EF95F90" X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V6.00.2900.5931 This is a multi-part message in MIME format. ------=_NextPart_000_0000_01CB2BDC.1EF95F90 Content-Type: text/html; charset="iso-8859-1" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://informationr.net/ir/8-1/paper144.html The nonsense of 'knowledge management'

Information Research, Vol. 8 No. 1, October = 2002

The nonsense of 'knowledge management'

T.D. = Wilson
Professor=20 Emeritus
University of Sheffield, UK
Visiting Professor, = H=F6gskolan i=20 Bor=E5s
Bor=E5s, Sweden

Abstract

Examines critically the origins and basis of 'knowledge=20 management', its components and its development as a field of = consultancy=20 practice. Problems in the distinction between 'knowledge' and = 'information'=20 are explored, as well as Polanyi's concept of 'tacit knowing'. The = concept is=20 examined in the journal literature, the Web sites of consultancy = companies,=20 and in the presentation of business schools. The conclusion is reached = that=20 'knowledge management' is an umbrella term for a variety of = organizational=20 activities, none of which are concerned with the management of = knowledge.=20 Those activities that are not concerned with the management of = information are=20 concerned with the management of work practices, in the expectation = that=20 changes in such areas as communication practice will enable = information=20 sharing.

Introduction

The growth of 'knowledge management' as a strategy of consultancy = companies=20 is one of a series of such strategies dating from Taylor's = (1911)=20 'scientific management' of the early part of the last century. 'Time and = motion=20 study' developed directly out of scientific management and continued = into the=20 1970s as a widespread industrial engineering technique. In the late = 1930s, the=20 'human relations school' emerged out of research between 1927 and 1932 = at the=20 Western Electric Hawthorne Works in Chicago (Mayo, = 1933) and=20 had a considerable influence in the emerging consultancy companies after = the=20 Second World War.

In the second half of the last century, the pace of new techniques = quickened=20 considerably: we have seen (not in chronological order and not a = complete list):=20

'the repertory grid'	'management by objectives'
'theory X and theory Y'	'T-groups'
'the matrix organization'	'Planning Programming Budgeting System'
'zero-based budgeting'	'organization development'
'total quality management'	'downsizing'
'organizational learning'	'systems thinking'
'team-building'	'cultural change'
'strategic information systems'	'benchmarking'
'ISO9000 certification'=20	'the balanced scorecard'
'core competencies'=20	'business process re-engineering'
'enterprise resource planning'=20	'customer relationship management'
and now =
'knowledge = management'.

These have sometimes been called management fads and fashions, but it = would=20 be wrong to assume that, for that reason, they all lacked effectiveness = when=20 applied in organizations. Some, however, have been disastrous: Stephen = Roach,=20 Chief Economist at Morgan Stanley, was a strong protagonist for = downsizing,=20 arguing that it was the cure for any company's problems, but in 1997 he = reversed=20 that opinion, arguing that, on the contrary, it could be a recipe for = industrial=20 disaster. Jenkins = (1997)=20 reports Cameron, a researcher in organizational behaviour, as saying = that,=20 "downsizing [is] the most pervasive yet unsuccessful change effort in = the=20 business world". Some techniques fail, or at least are dropped from the=20 repertoire, because they are Utopian in character: organizations are = told that=20 the technique must be applied throughout the organization for the full = benefits=20 to be achieved. This was the case with business process re-engineering, = but=20 businesses quickly realised that the costs of carrying out BPR = throughout the=20 organization would be crippling and, because they attempted to apply the = technique to only part of the company, the results were less than = satisfactory -=20 in fact, two thirds of BPR efforts are said to have failed (Hall, et = al.,=20 1994). Knowledge management (whatever it is) also shows signs of = being=20 offered as a Utopian ideal and the results are likely to be similar.

'Knowledge' and 'information'

In management consultancy it is, perhaps, not too serious to fail to=20 distinguish between related concepts (although I suspect that management = researchers would not be happy with this proposition), but for the = fields of=20 information science and information systems, it is clearly necessary for = us to=20 distinguish between 'information' and 'knowledge'. Failure to do so = results in=20 one or other of these terms standing as a synonym for the other, thereby = confusing anyone who wishes to understand what each term signifies.

Happily, it is quite easy to distinguish between 'knowledge' and=20 'information' in such a way as to remove ambiguity and, at the same = time,=20 demonstrate the fundamental nonsense of 'knowledge management'.

'Knowledge' is defined as what we know: knowledge involves the mental = processes of comprehension, understanding and learning that go on in the = mind=20 and only in the mind, however much they involve interaction with the = world=20 outside the mind, and interaction with others. Whenever we wish to = express what=20 we know, we can only do so by uttering messages of one kind or another - = oral,=20 written, graphic, gestural or even through 'body language'. Such = messages do not=20 carry 'knowledge', they constitute 'information', which a knowing mind = may=20 assimilate, understand, comprehend and incorporate into its own = knowledge=20 structures. These structures are not identical for the person uttering = the=20 message and the receiver, because each person's knowledge structures = are, as Schutz = (1967) puts=20 it, 'biographically determined'. Therefore, the knowledge built from the = messages can never be exactly the same as the knowledge base from which = the=20 messages were uttered.

In common usage, these two terms are frequently used as synonyms, but = the=20 task of the academic researcher is to clarify the use of terms so that = the field=20 of investigation has a clearly defined vocabulary. The present confusion = over=20 'knowledge management' illustrates this need perfectly.

The consequence of this analysis is that everything outside the mind = that can=20 be manipulated in any way, can be defined as 'data', if it consists of = simple=20 facts, or as 'information', if the data are embedded in a context of = relevance=20 to the recipient. Collections of messages, composed in various ways, may = be=20 considered as 'information resources' of various kinds - collections of = papers=20 in a journal, e-mail messages in an electronic 'folder', manuscript = letters in=20 an archive, or whatever. Generally, these are regarded as 'information=20 resources'. Thus, data and information may be managed, and information = resources=20 may be managed, but knowledge (i.e., what we know) can never be managed, = except=20 by the individual knower and, even then, only imperfectly. The fact is = that we=20 often do not know what we know: that we know something may only emerge = when we=20 need to employ the knowledge to accomplish something. Much of what we = have=20 learnt is apparently forgotten, but can emerge unexpectedly when needed, = or even=20 when not needed. In other words we seem to have very little control over = 'what=20 we know'.

What is 'knowledge management'?

If the definitions above are adequate to distinguish between = 'knowledge' and=20 'information' (and genuine debate on this would be useful), the question = of what=20 'knowledge management' might be becomes interesting. The Web of = Science=20 (all three citation indexes) was searched, from 1981 to 2002 for papers = with the=20 term 'knowledge management' in the title. The search was restricted to = the title=20 mainly to produce a manageable data file, but also on the proposition = that if=20 the term appeared in the title, the papers were likely to focus clearly = on the=20 topic. The result is shown in Figure 1:

It can be seen that the term did not occur until 1986 and from 1986 = to 1996,=20 there were only a few occurrences in each year. From 1997 to date, = however, the=20 growth has been exponential, but the data for 2002 suggest that the rate = of=20 growth has slowed considerably. (Note) = There is, of=20 course, a problem with a quantitative analysis of this kind - we do not = know=20 whether all of the items in the file actually deal with the same = subject. Given=20 the fuzziness of the term, authors may be using it to cover a very = diverse range=20 of topics. This problem is addressed, partly, in what follows.

When we look in more detail at the items in the first eleven years=20 (1986-1996) we find a very wide range of subjects represented under the = heading=20 'knowledge management'. Two items were simply editorials in journals - = when=20 these are removed we are left with thirty-three papers, the largest = single=20 category of which deal with artificial intelligence and expert systems = (seven=20 papers), followed by general aspects of computing (four papers), = decision=20 support systems (three papers) information technology in general (two = papers)=20 and miscellaneous subjects (i.e., databases, digitisation, geographical=20 information systems, and human-computer interaction - four papers) = Taking these=20 together as dealing with computing and its applications, we have 61% of = the=20 papers. Apart from these computing topics we have education, the human = genome=20 project, information policy, information management, organizational = structure,=20 product development, terminology, and a variety of other subjects. = Clearly,=20 however, before the surge in publication in 1997, 'knowledge management' = meant=20 some application or other of computers, with the influence stemming from = the=20 notion of 'knowledge bases' in the expert systems field. The analysis = also=20 suggests that, from the beginning, there has been confusion over what = the term=20 meant, since few of these papers bother to define the term.

This focus on technology appears to persist: I downloaded 158 = references from=20 the Web of Science for 1999 to 2001 into EndNote and = then=20 searched the abstracts for specific terms: without taking account of = double=20 counting, 'information technology', 'technology' and 'software' occurred = a total=20 of 66 times, while 'information sharing', 'communities of practice' and=20 'knowledge sharing' occurred a total of only 10 times.

To determine the current nature of 'knowledge management' in more = detail, I=20 searched the Web of Science again (all three citation indexes) = for=20 papers published in 2001 with the phrase 'knowledge management' in the = record.=20 Excluding abstracts of papers, this produced 242 items, distributed over = 106=20 journals. On a relatively crude classification, the 106 journals were=20 distributed across 26 subject fields, with six fields having more than = three=20 journal titles. This suggests that the concept (although interpreted in=20 different ways in different fields) is widely distributed across fields = of=20 practice.

**Table 1: Subject range of=20 journals**
Subject area	No. of titles
Computing & Information systems	26
Information Science, Information Management & = Librarianship	18
Management	13
Artificial Intelligence	10
Engineering	8
Medicine	4

Only 41 journals carried more than one paper with the relevant phrase = in the=20 title in the year, and only 10 journals carried more than four. These = were:

**Table 2: Journal titles with more = than four=20 papers on 'knowledge management' in 2000**
Journal Title	No.
Decision Support Systems (SI)	12
Journal of Management Information Systems (SI)	10
Wirtschaftsinformatik (SI)	10
European Journal of Information Systems (SI)	9
Expert Systems with Applications (SI)	9
Nfd Information Wissenschaft Und Praxis	8
IBM Systems Journal (SI)	7
Journal of Strategic Information Systems (SI)	7
Journal of Management Studies (SI)	6
Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association	5

Assuming that these journals constitute the 'core' journals of the = field (at=20 least for the year 2001), it is interesting to note the strong = orientation=20 towards the field of information systems. At least six of the journals = are in=20 this area, seven if we include medical informatics within information = systems.=20 The exceptions are Expert systems with applications and Nfd = Information Wissenschaft und Praxis (interestingly, the only = information=20 science journal in the set - although others appear with lower paper = counts).=20 This raises the suspicion that, while the range of subject fields in = which the=20 concept appears may be wide, the subject within any field is likely to = have an=20 information systems orientation.

Further examination of the journals revealed that eight of the papers = retrieved were simply Editorials to thematic issues and that the IBM = Systems=20 Journal special issue had twelve papers rather than the seven = revealed by=20 the search. This gives a grand total of eighty papers to examine to = discover=20 what they have in common that can define 'knowledge management'.

Decision Support Systems

Ten of these papers were in one special issue devoted to 'knowledge=20 management'. In seven of the eleven papers, the authors are using = 'knowledge'=20 simply as a synonym for 'information'. Use of the word 'knowledge' adds = nothing=20 to the argument and often simply confuses. Sometimes the terms are = juxtaposed in=20 curious ways, for example:

"Knowledge management has inspired a shift from a = transaction to a=20 distributed knowledge management (DKM) perspective on = inter-organizational=20 information processing=85 Each player in the network acquires specific = knowledge=20 from other players for decision support." (Pederson = &=20 Larson, 2001)

This appears to mean no more than, 'We have decided to call=20 inter-organizational information systems that involve information = sharing=20 "distributed knowledge management systems"'.

One of the eleven papers deals with data-mining, and one deals with = business=20 process re-engineering. One offers a systems framework for knowledge = management,=20 which is little different from a systems framework for information = management,=20 and one explores how managers need to understand things before they make = decisions (!).

Journal of Management Information Systems

All of the papers in this journal were in one special issue devoted = to=20 'knowledge management' and one was simply the Editorial, without an = abstract.=20 The papers are rather less information systems focused than in = Decision=20 Support Systems and cover a wide range of topics. At least three or = four=20 are simply using 'knowledge' as a synonym for 'information' and at times = the=20 jargon that attempts to hide this fact can be impenetrable One deals = with ways=20 to make e-mail more effective, one with other aspects of communication = in=20 organization, one with intellectual property rights, one with the fact = that=20 firms need an information infrastructure, and one deals with how = difficult it is=20 to transfer 'tacit knowledge' - quoting Polanyi, but assuming, wrongly, = that=20 tacit knowledge can be made explicit.

Wirtschaftsinformatik

Another case of the number of papers being inflated by a special = issue -=20 eight of the ten papers are from this issue and one appears to be the = Editorial.=20 Half of the papers are simply using 'knowledge' as a synonym; for = example,=20 describing documents as 'documented knowledge', two deal with the = barriers in=20 human communication in organizations, one with expert systems, one with = hiring=20 people to acquire 'external information', and one with the evaluation of = 'knowledge management systems', i.e., information systems under another=20 name.

European Journal of Information Systems

Six of the nine papers were in one issue of the journal and one was = the=20 Editorial. The remaining five deal with various organizational issues, = usually=20 without defining what is meant be knowledge, so that one is forced to = the=20 conclusion that the authors are writing about 'information'. How is it = possible,=20 for example, to speak of transferring 'knowledge' into a 'database'? It = is=20 possible to transfer data about what we know into a database, but it is = never=20 possible to transfer the knowledge. Only one paper (Sutton, = 2001) asks=20 what knowledge is and whether it can be managed, but then confuses = things by=20 referring to information as 'codified knowledge'. In fact, in most = papers, one=20 has the impression that the authors are trying desperately to avoid = talking=20 about information and information systems - presumably in order to = satisfy the=20 requirements for having their papers accepted in a special issue!

Expert Systems with Applications

Another special issue in which all of the papers are attempts to = present=20 expert systems as part of the 'knowledge management' fashion. Various = techniques=20 are described as 'knowledge management tools', but in all cases it turns = out=20 that these involve not knowledge but, for example, information about the = intellectual resources of a firm, or software 'agents' that function on = the use=20 of information. It all appears to be part of the attempt to re-sell = expert=20 systems under a new label.

Nfd Information Wissenschaft und Praxis

Occasionally authors get tangled up in the lack of a clear = distinction=20 between knowledge and information: thus an 'Enterprise Information = Portal'=20 becomes a 'knowledge management system'. (Koenemann, = et=20 al., 2000) . This journal is predominantly concerned with = information=20 science (as the title indicates) and, not surprisingly two of the papers = are=20 concerned with information retrieval and information extraction, one = with=20 journals and patents as repositories of 'organizational knowledge', one = with=20 information software of various kinds, one with the role of the = information=20 worker in a 'knowledge economy', and two with the use of the 'balanced=20 scorecard' technique - thereby nicely linking two managerial fads!

IBM Systems Journal

All of the papers are in one special issue of the journal, which, in = fact,=20 contains thirteen papers on the subject, not simply the seven retrieved = by the=20 search strategy. The papers are rather more diverse that those in the = journals=20 examined previously and, overall, are less oriented towards information = systems.=20 Nevertheless, five papers have a technology orientation. The first of = these, by=20 Marwick = (2001)=20 is flawed simply because it accepts, uncritically, Nonaka's mistaken=20 understanding of Polanyi's concept of tacit and explicit knowledge. = However,=20 this analysis is soon abandoned because Marwick comes to the = unsurprising=20 conclusion that, 'there are still significant shortfalls in the ability = of=20 technology to support the use of tacit knowledge - for which = face-to-face=20 meetings are still the touchstone of effectiveness.' and '=85the = strongest=20 contribution to current solutions is made by technologies that deal = largely with=20 explicit knowledge, such as search and classification.' ['Explicit = knowledge',=20 of course, is simply a synonym for 'information'.] The first of the = remaining=20 'technology' papers deals with 'knowledge portals', which turn out to = be,=20 '=85single-point-access software systems intended to provide easy and = timely=20 access to information and to support communities of knowledge workers = who share=20 common goals.' In other words, a Web-based information system. The = rationale for=20 adopting the term 'knowledge portal' becomes very convoluted at times: = 'We refer=20 to information portals used by knowledge workers as knowledge portals = (or K=20 Portals for short) to differentiate this KM role and usage from other = portal=20 roles, such as consumer shopping or business-to-business commerce.' (Mack, et = al.,=20 2001). The 'Lotus Knowledge Discovery System' (Pohs, et = al.,=20 2001) consists of a 'K-station portal', which is a system to manage = '=85mail,=20 calendar, discussions, to-do items, team rooms, custom applications, and = Web=20 sites=85' [Lotus Domino perhaps?], the 'Discovery Server', which is = '=85an index to=20 the written information and expertise that exist within an organization' = and=20 which includes 'spiders' to gather information from Notes databases, = file system=20 files, and external Web sites, and the 'K-map', which is, essentially, = an=20 information mapping and retrieval system. Of the remaining two = technology=20 oriented papers one is on the application of data-mining techniques to = textual=20 data bases, but instead of referring to this as 'text-mining', it is = described=20 as 'knowledge-mining'. The other paper is a review of the state of the = art of=20 speech recognition.

Four papers have more of a social or human orientation: two deal with = 'communities of practice', defined as '=85a group whose members = regularly engage=20 in sharing and learning, based on their common interests' (Lesser & = Storck,=20 2001). Somewhat obviously, the authors conclude that such groups = benefit the=20 organizations of which they form part, and ought to be fostered by = management.=20 The second paper (Gongla & = Rizzuto,=20 2001) describes how such communities have been fostered in IBM. The=20 remaining two papers in this category deal with "human and social = factors in=20 knowledge management" and with possibility that one's view of knowledge=20 management is likely to be determined by one's personality type - while = this=20 argument might have some force, however, the paper is devoid of data and = simply=20 offers speculation. Even the first of these two is, in part, a thinly = disguised=20 discussion of technology, so perhaps it ought to go into the first = category of=20 technology related papers. The authors describe an experimental system = at IBM=20 called 'Babble', which '=85resembles a multichannel, text-based chat = system to=20 which many users can connect, and either select from a list of = conversations to=20 participate in, or create their own.' (Thomas, = et=20 al., 2001) The authors claim that the system differs from a=20 conventional chat system in two ways: first, by the text of the chat = persisting=20 over time so that anyone joining a chat can review the whole of what has = gone=20 before, and secondly, by representing the participants graphically so = that who=20 is present can be seen in one of the windows on the screen. Quite how = this=20 constitutes 'knowledge management' is not explained.

Two of the remaining three papers deal with what we might term = business=20 processes: Fahey,=20 et al. (2001) examine the role of knowledge management in = linking=20 e-business and operating processes, which boils down to saying that = businesses=20 need to know about their customers in order to develop the right = products and=20 the appropriate means of reaching those customers. Here, 'knowledge' is, = in=20 general, a synonym for information and, where it is not, the authors are = describing ways of organizing people so that information can be shared. = The=20 second paper, on exchanging 'knowledge resources' in strategic alliances = suffers=20 from the same problem - generally, the knowledge resources turn out to = be=20 information resources, 'contracts, manuals, databases, licenses, or = embedded in=20 products' or people (Parise & = Henderson, 2001).

The final paper in the collection is, 'Where did knowledge management = come=20 from?' (Prusak,=20 2001) This is an interesting paper, which cleverly tries to defuse = the=20 proposition that knowledge management is nothing but a management = consultancy=20 fad, claiming that, 'knowledge management is not just a consultants' = invention=20 but a practitioner-based, substantive response to real social and = economic=20 trends'. However, no evidence is produced to support this contention, so = we must=20 assume that it is little more than management consultancy rhetoric.

I have given this issue of IBM Systems Journal more = attention than=20 the others partly because some of the papers are genuinely interesting = and=20 partly because they are freely available on the Web. However, they = reveal much=20 of the same tendencies as in the other journals: a concern with = information=20 technology, a tendency to elide the distinction between 'knowledge' = (what I=20 know) and 'information' (what I am able to convey about what I know), = and=20 confusion of the management of work practices in the organization with = the=20 management of knowledge.

Journal of Strategic Information Systems

Again, we have a special issue devoted to knowledge management (and,=20 interesting to note, no other issue in 2000 had any papers on the = subject). We=20 have here a disparate mix of papers (one is the Editorial), half of them = concerned with technology. For example, one explores how artificial = intelligence=20 might help knowledge management - the general conclusion appears to be = 'not a=20 lot at present'; another, more interestingly, shows the lack of = congruence=20 between what a group of competitive intelligence analysts did and the = technology=20 being developed to help them (Schultze = & Boland,=20 2000). Two or three papers, however, deal with the 'people = problems': why=20 people do or do not help one another in communities of practice (Wasko & = Faraj,=20 2000) and how people need to share some underlying cognitive = framework if=20 they are to benefit from attempts to share information (Merali, = 2000).

Journal of Management Studies

Another special issue and, again, one of the items is the Editorial. = As with=20 the other journals, one of the things that jumps out of the page is the = lack of=20 any consensus about what 'knowledge management' might be. A thoughtful = paper=20 argues that, '=85 knowledge is an ambiguous, unspecific and dynamic = phenomenon,=20 intrinsically related to meaning, understanding and process, and = therefore=20 difficult to manage.' and '=85knowledge management is as likely, if not = more so,=20 to operate as a practice of managing people or information than as a = practice=20 attuned towards facilitating knowledge creation.' (Alvesson = &=20 Karreman, 2001). Another paper, on 'dispersed knowledge' in = organizations=20 (Becker, = 2001)=20 is a case of 'knowledge' being used as a synonym for information. The = remaining=20 papers are, in effect, cases on how information is created in = organizations, and=20 how information is used to guide practice - needless to say, information = in=20 these cases is called 'knowledge' without the distinction being = elucidated.

Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association

The final case is a little complicated, since the search for items in = this=20 journal published in 2001 revealed papers actually published in 1999 and = 2000 -=20 an instance, presumably, of the Association being well behind in its = publication=20 programme. Three of the papers deal with the application of expert = systems to=20 clinical decision making and call it 'knowledge management'; one (Swoboda, = et=20 al., 1999) reveals its confusion in the title: 'Knowledge = management:=20 easy access to clinical information'; and the last (Vimarlund, = et=20 al., 1999) uses 'knowledge' as a synonym for information.

A number of points arise out of this analysis: first, it is curious = that the=20 vast majority of papers are in special issues of journals and that, in = some=20 cases, no other paper has been published on this topic in the same = journal since=20 2001. This suggests that the topic has not entered the normal stream of = papers=20 in these journals using the same terminology - although papers on the = same=20 subjects - expert systems, decision making, decision support systems, = etc., -=20 have continued to be published. The second point reflects the first: = there is=20 absolutely no agreement on what constitutes 'knowledge management' and, = in the=20 case of the special issues there is a suspicion that the papers have = adopted=20 this terminology simply to be published in that issue. Thirdly, those = papers=20 that seriously address the question of whether knowledge can be managed=20 generally conclude that it cannot and that the topic breaks down into = the=20 management of information and the management of work practices.

=20

On the basis of this evidence, we appear to be with Alice in the land = through=20 the looking-glass, listening to Humpty Dumpty's theory of language.

Of course, the citation indexes of ISI do not index all journals and = it takes=20 a considerable length of time before they accept that a journal is = worthy of=20 inclusion. This explains the absence of, for example, the Journal of = Knowledge Management, now in its sixth volume and the freely = available=20 Journal of Knowledge = Management=20 Practice, now in its third volume. An examination of the = contents of=20 these journals reveals the same problems with the concept of 'knowledge=20 management' as those set out above, and the quality of some of the = papers is=20 sometimes below that of the journals surveyed here. In the case of the=20 Journal of Knowledge Management, we are informed that it is, = '=85not a=20 refereed journal in its true academic sense.' (Emerald, = n.d.) and=20 this may be a contributory factor.

The consultancy view

If, as proposed, 'knowledge management' is, at its centre, a movement = driven=20 by management consultancies, it can be useful to look at some of these=20 consultancies to discover what 'knowledge management' means to them. We = can=20 begin with one of the 'founding fathers' of the idea - perhaps the = founding=20 father - Karl Erik Sveiby, who wrote the first book on the subject in = 1990 under=20 the Swedish title, 'Kunskapledning' (Sveiby, = 1990).=20 Sveiby is now a consultant, based in Australia but working globally, and = his Web=20 site contains a great deal of information on the subject, although his = main=20 concern is now with the measurement of 'intangible assets' and other = aspects of=20 'intellectual capital'. A paper originally written in 1996 notes that = 'knowledge=20 management' consists of two 'tracks': the 'IT- track', which is = information=20 management, and the 'people track', which is the management of people = (Sveiby, = 2001a).=20 Elsewhere on the site, in the Frequently Asked Questions file, Sveiby = answers=20 the question, 'Why should knowledge be managed?', to which the response = is:

I don't believe knowledge can be managed. Knowledge = Management is=20 a poor term, but we are stuck with it, I suppose. "Knowledge Focus" or = "Knowledge Creation" (Nonaka) are better terms, because they describe = a=20 mindset, which sees knowledge as activity not an object. A is a human = vision,=20 not a technological one. (Sveiby,=20 2001b)

Of course, academic researchers and teachers do not need to be 'stuck = with'=20 anything that fails to stand up to rigorous analysis, but it is = interesting to=20 see that one of the founders of 'knowledge management' is uncomfortable = with the=20 term.

Turning to an older and probably better known consultant, we find = that Peter=20 Drucker, one of the first people to write about the idea of the = 'knowledge=20 society' and the 'knowledge economy' (Drucker, = 1969),=20 disputes the notion that knowledge can be managed. At the Delphi Group's = Collaborative Commerce Summit, Kotzer = (2001)=20 reports Drucker as follows:

=85Drucker=85 scoffs at the notion of knowledge management. = 'You can't=20 manage knowledge,' he says. 'Knowledge is between two ears, and only = between=20 two ears.' To that extent, Drucker says it's really about what = individual=20 workers do with the knowledge they have. When employees leave a = company, he=20 says, their knowledge goes with them, no matter how much they've=20 shared.

Frank Miller, another independent consultant, working in Australia, = and with=20 an invited paper in this issue of Information Research, agrees. In the = original=20 version of the paper, available on his Web site he says:

...knowledge is the uniquely human capability of making = meaning=20 from information - ideally in relationships with other human = beings...'=20
Knowledge is, after all, what we know. And what we know can't be=20 commodified. Perhaps if we didn't have the word 'knowledge' and were=20 constrained to say 'what I know', the notion of 'knowledge capture' = would be=20 seen for what it is - nonsense! (Miller,=20 2000)

These, however, are very much individual views. What corporate view = of=20 'knowledge management' is presented by the major consultancy companies? =

Accenture=20

Accenture is the former Andersen Consulting: its strengths have long = been in=20 the area of information technology management, so it is no surprise to = find=20 'knowledge management' equated mainly with information technology. For = example,=20 Lotus Software is identified as a partner and the description reads:

This Knowledge Management solution provider enables workers = to=20 capture, manage and share information throughout their organizations. = (http://www.accenture.com/xd/xd.asp?it=3DenWeb&xd= =3Dservices%5Chp%5Calliances.xml)=20

which neatly demonstrates the use of 'knowledge' as a synonym for=20 'information'. Elsewhere on the site, 'knowledge management' is defined = as:

=85ensuring that the right information is available in an = easily=20 digestible format to employees across the organization at the point of = need so=20 they can leverage experiences and make more effective business = decisions. (http://www.accenture.com/xd/xd.asp?i= t=3DenWeb&xd=3Dservices\technology\research\tech_virtual.xml)
which, to this author, reads very much like a 1970s definition of = information=20 management.

Cap Gemini = Ernst and=20 Young

The management consultancy arm of Ernst and Young was bought in 2000 = by the=20 French group, Cap Gemini, to form Cap Gemini Ernst and Young. In this = company,=20 'knowledge management' appears to be equated with the management of=20 'intellectual capital' (Loudes, = 1999) and=20 this, in turn, means, for example:

encouraging information exchange among staff, for example, through = formal=20 and informal networking following training;=20
building intranets to provide access to information resources;=20
creating 'yellow pages' or indexes to expertise; and=20
creating newsgroups for employees to encourage information exchange. =
In other words, at CGEY, 'knowledge management' is information=20 management.

Deloitte = and=20 Touche

Deloitte and Touch promote 'knowledge management' (Eyler, = 2001) under=20 a definition provided by another consultancy, the Gartner Group:

Knowledge management is a discipline that promotes an = integrated=20 approach to the creation, capture, organization, access, and use of an = enterprise's information assets. These assets include structured = databases,=20 textual information such as policy and procedure documents, and most=20 importantly, the tacit knowledge and expertise resident in the heads = of=20 individual employees.

which quite clearly proposes 'knowledge' as a synonym for = 'information'. The=20 idea of 'tacit knowledge' will be dealt with later.

The company clearly views 'knowledge management' as amenable to = technical=20 solutions, claiming that:

Deloitte Consulting provides system consulting and = implementation=20 services for knowledge management solutions in a wide range of = applications=20 and scales. The solutions include data warehouse systems, enterprise = system=20 integration (data exchange system) with middleware, and workflow or = document=20 management systems with groupware such as Lotus Notes/Domino. (Eyler,=20 2001)

Ernst and = Young

This company's main concern appears to be in the application of = 'knowledge=20 management' to its own business: I could find no publications or site = locations=20 that promoted 'knowledge management' services other than e-learning. = Internally,=20 'knowledge management' is translated as information sharing among Ernst = and=20 Young staff around the world (although it is called, of course, = 'knowledge=20 sharing') , and the provision of business intelligence to clients. These = activities are supported by a network of 'Centers for Business = Knowledge', which=20 appear to be a combination of the traditional company library and = information=20 service, plus specialised services such as statistical analysis and = financial=20 benchmarking. Thus, although the rhetoric is about 'knowledge', the = reality is=20 about information, its organization and transfer.

KPMG = Consulting

It seems that, at one time, KPMG had a 'knowledge management = practice', but=20 all trace of this appears to have disappeared from the site, except in=20 descriptions of the authors of certain documents. It appears that KPMG = thinks=20 that there is more to be gained by 'leverage intellectual assets' and by = drawing=20 attention to the concept of 'intellectual property' and the 'hidden = value' of=20 such property. For example, a recent report, Intellectual gold, defines=20 intellectual property as:

=85not just patents, trade marks, copyrights, database = rights and=20 other "pure" IP, but other forms of articulated knowledge, such as = business=20 processes, methodologies and know how. (KPMG,=20 2002)

It may well be that KPMG has reached the conclusion that the area of=20 intellectual property, broadly defined, offers more opportunity for = income=20 growth than the rather less well defined idea of 'knowledge = management'.

McKinsey = and=20 Company

McKinsey and co. do not have a significant representation of the idea = of=20 'knowledge management' on their site. Most of the entries in the search = results=20 refer to the content of McKinsey Quarterly as a source of = information=20 on 'the world of knowledge'. Apart from this, the employment pages refer = to job=20 opportunities in the sector of 'Knowledge management and research', = where roles=20 such as 'Research analyst' and 'Knowledge specialist' are identified. A = typical=20 'research analyst' job description begins:

'The Insurance Research Analyst will assist teams by = collecting,=20 summarizing, analyzing, and synthesizing facts that serve as critical = inputs=20 to client service teams, interpreting their findings into implications = for=20 teams.'

which seems like a straightforward information analysis job. The = 'knowledge=20 specialist' role is somewhat more diverse, but includes a number of = tasks that=20 would be familiar to anyone working under a title such as 'information=20 officer':

'Participate in the Practice's knowledge capture and = codification=20 program by sourcing internal knowledge and experts; develop topical = material=20 relevant for internal and client related activities. Enhance the = ability of=20 client teams to access internal knowledge and experts, advise client = teams on=20 the application of practice knowledge and expertise; provide hands-on = guidance=20 for teams without prior experience in the financial services=20 industry.
Build and maintain "self-service" tools/databases for = consultants=20 and research professionals to access knowledge, including intranet=20 sites.
Maintain the Practice's knowledge databases and tools for = internal=20 knowledge codification and storage. Provide ad hoc support to the = Practice's=20 leaders for internal knowledge sharing meetings, performance metrics = and other=20 practice events/activities.'

It can be seen that 'knowledge' is being used as a synonym for=20 'information'.

PricewaterhouseCoopers

PwC's global Web site has a number of pages devoted to two books = written by=20 PwC staff: The knowledge management fieldbook, by Bukowitz = and=20 Williams (1999a) and Knowledge management - a guide to good = practice, by Kelleher and = Levene (2001). An extract from the first of these (called, rather = amusingly=20 coincidentally in view of the above figure, 'Looking through the = knowledge=20 glass') appears on the Web site of CIO = Enterprise=20 Magazine (1999). The extract is written in typical 'management=20 consultancy speak', which cannot hide the fact that most of the time = 'knowledge'=20 is simply a synonym for information. On the same page there is an = interview with=20 the authors, where the confusion of the two words increases:

Some early KM theorists hoped that somehow if we instituted=20 knowledge management repositories, places to capture information, we = really=20 wouldn't need that middle manager level.

Comment becomes unnecessary at this point.

However, the main area of the PwC business under which 'knowledge = management'=20 now falls appears to be the 'Intellectual Asset Management Practice' (to = which=20 Bukowitz and Williams belong). Most of the work in this practice appears = to deal=20 with issues such as licensing (both into companies and out of companies) = and=20 intellectual asset aspects of mergers and acquisitions and security. The = site=20 previously devoted to the Knowledge Management Practice appears no = longer to=20 exist, since a search for known documents using the search facility at=20 www.pwcglobal.com revealed nothing. However, some papers are still=20 available.

In particular, there is an issue of the house journal Investment=20 Management Perspectives which contains eight papers on various = aspects of=20 'knowledge management'. The first (Yu, = 2000), has a=20 section headed, 'What is knowledge management?', which then fails to = define it -=20 there is a good deal on what 'knowledge' is and about what it is = important to=20 include in a 'knowledge management' programme, but no definition. There = is also=20 the usual confusion between 'tacit knowledge' and what we might call=20 'expressible but previously unexpressed' or implicit knowledge. The = other papers=20 deal with the problem of measuring the success of a knowledge management = programme, but there is no definition of knowledge that distinguishes it = from=20 information, and the cases explored appear to be cases of information = management=20 rather than 'knowledge management' (Petrash, = 2000).=20 Similar problems plague the remaining papers - they deal with = interesting=20 topics, such as information sharing and the role of information = technology, but=20 they lack any coherent theoretical basis upon which to base any = conception of=20 'knowledge management'.

PwC has now been bought by IBM, thereby tying the consultancy even = more=20 closely to hardware and software selling.

Conclusion on the consultancies.

The conclusion to this brief exploration of consultancy Web sites is = that=20 'knowledge management' means different things to different companies and = that=20 one or two of them that have previously dabbled with the idea have moved = on to=20 other things.

Some of the consultancies covered claim that companies are flocking = to them=20 to discover the joys of 'knowledge management'. However, since 1993, = Bain and=20 Company have been tracking the use of various management tools and = according to=20 their latest survey covering the year 2000 (Bain & = Company,=20 2001) only about 35% of their world-wide sample of 451 companies was = using=20 'knowledge management', reporting a satisfaction rating of about 3.5 on = a=20 five-point scale. The usage figure puts 'knowledge management' in 19th = position,=20 out of 25 management tools. This compares with about 70% using = benchmarking, and=20 almost 80% using strategic planning. The Bain survey suggests that the = flood may=20 be more of a trickle.

The view from the business schools

Similar difficulties of definition and distinction seem to exist in = the=20 business schools: for example, the=20 course on 'knowledge management' at the Stuart Graduate School of = Business=20 at Illinois Institute of Technology is part of the information = management stream=20 and covers:

Basic concepts of intelligent systems for improving business = decision-making. Topics include opportunity/problem identification, = data=20 mining, visual model building, expert systems, neural networks and = their=20 successful implementation. Students will build prototype = knowledge-based=20 systems using commercial software. Case studies address knowledge = management=20 system implementation and benefit measurement challenges.

So, here: 'knowledge management' is equated, essentially, with expert = systems=20 for decision support and related software technologies.

At the George Mason University School of Management, 'knowledge = management'=20 is part of the information systems management stream and the relevant = course=20 is described as follows:

Examines the firms that use knowledge management principles = and=20 approaches: intellectual capital, human capital, customer capital, = tacit and=20 explicit knowledge, the new role of the Chief Knowledge Officer, = leveraging of=20 knowledge management.

This is not particularly helpful in terms of definition and the detailed=20 syllabus presents something of a hodge-podge of topics, with no = clear=20 distinction offered between 'information' and 'knowledge'. The structure = of the=20 course has no readily apparent logic and the description of Week 1 as = presenting=20 a 'collage overview', seems to apply to the entire course.

In the University of Kentucky's Gattan College of Business and = Economics, the=20 Kentucky=20 Initiative for Knowledge Management notes:

A variety of computer-based techniques for managing = knowledge=20 (i.e., representing and processing it) have been and will continue to = be=20 devised to supplement innate human knowledge management skills. =

and 'knowledge management' is then defined as being concerned = with:

=85the invention, improvement, integration, usage, = administration,=20 evaluation, and impacts of such techniques.

Of course, as we have seen, only information can be 'represented and=20 processed' by computers, so this initiative is concerned with = information=20 systems under another name; presumably one with public relations = significance.=20

At the McCombs School of Business at the University of Texas at = Austin,=20 'knowledge management' is part of the information management = concentration in=20 the MBA, with one core course on 'Managing information', The description= =20 notes:

A sample of the topics covered in the course includes = business=20 intelligence; knowledge management; knowledge-worker productivity, = data=20 modeling, and group decision support systems.

which looks like a very cursory nod in the direction of 'knowledge=20 management'. There is also an elective course on 'Information and = knowledge=20 management', with no detailed description.

Georgetown University, Washington DC is one of the most prestigious=20 universities in the USA and its MBA programme has an elective course in = 'Technology and = Knowledge=20 Management', which:

'=85provides a managerial perspective on the effective use = of=20 information technology for strategic advantage and operational = performance in=20 global organizations through case analyses and class discussion. = Topics=20 include: information technology's relationship to business competition = and=20 strategy; the business value of information systems; the use of = information=20 systems to enhance decision-making, communication, and knowledge use = in=20 organizations; using information technology to redesign business = processes;=20 the ways information systems can add value to products and services; = and the=20 organizational, social, and ethical issues arising from information=20 technologies.'

The information systems orientation is clear.

At the Robert H. Smith School of Business, the University of = Maryland, the Center for Knowledge = &=20 Information Management,

'=85focuses on research dealing with the transformation of = business=20 practices through information technology, and the creation, = management, and=20 deployment of knowledge and information.'

Very little additional information is available, since the relevant = links=20 appear to be 'dead', but from what can be found, the information = technology=20 orientation is obvious.

At the Harvard Business School, 'knowledge management' figures in = part of a=20 course on "General Management: Processes and Action", with the module = title,=20 'Organization Learning and Knowledge Management Processes'. The description = makes the=20 intention clear:

Learning processes determine how individuals and = organizations=20 create, acquire, interpret, transfer, and retain knowledge; they too = may take=20 a variety of forms. The approaches examined in this module include=20 experimentation, benchmarking, and learning from past successes and = failures.=20

Here, 'organization learning' is re-badged as 'knowledge management'. = This=20 appears to be the only course at the School that deals with the = subject.

The Wharton School of Business at the University of Pennsylvania is = another=20 prestigious institution in the USA. Although its site has a number of = 'knowledge=20 management' links, the subject does not appear to feature in the MBA = programme.=20 It does, on the other hand, have what appears to be a very soundly based = course=20 on, 'Information:=20 Strategy, Systems, and Economics':

Understanding the strategic aspects of information and = information=20 management is being transformed; what were once skills of specialized=20 technologists are now critical aspects of the preparation of all = executives.=20 This major will prepare students for careers in consulting and venture = capital, and for senior management positions in a wide range of = industries=20 already being transformed by the interacting forces of information,=20 globalization, and deregulation.

No hyperbolae about 'knowledge management' here.

'Knowledge management' does not appear in the syllabus of the MBA at = the London Business School although a = seminar is=20 offered at the Doctoral level. At the Manchester=20 Business School, a Google search on the site revealed no information = on=20 courses on 'knowledge management' in the MBA programme, and the subject = does not=20 appear in the lists of core and elective courses.

The Said Business School at Oxford University appears to have no core = or=20 elective course in 'knowledge management' in its MBA programme' However, = one of=20 the core courses, 'People and=20 organizations' includes "managing knowledge and change', and = 'Managing=20 knowledge-based organizations' has been offered as an elective.

At the Cass Business School, City University, London, there are about = twenty=20 links to 'knowledge management' on the site, but none link to core or = elective=20 courses in the MBA programme. Most of them link to research topics: for = example,=20 a team working on 'Operations=20 management and quantitative analysis', refer to 'Information and = knowledge=20 management - model building skills, management learning', as a key = topic. The=20 usual confusion between 'information' and 'knowledge' can be seen: the = main=20 paragraph on this page refers to '=85applying innovative systems = thinking and=20 information management to improve business performance and = learning.'

Warwick University Business School, which is another leading UK = institution=20 and the joint home (the other institution is the University of Oxford) = of the=20 ESRC Centre on Skills, Knowledge and Organizational Performance, does = not have a=20 course on 'knowledge management' in its MBA programme. It does, however, = have a course = on=20 'information management'.

One's overall impression, from this review of business school sites = is that=20 the most prestigious steer well away from 'knowledge management', other = than in=20 the statements of interest of faculty. Nor does the subject appear to = enter=20 significantly into the teaching programmes. The sites often include = documents in=20 the form of reports, working papers, or draft papers and these reveal = the same=20 difficulties with the concept as shown in the review of journals.

'Search and replace marketing'

The review of journal papers, the review of consultancy Web sites and = those=20 of the business schools, suggest that, in many cases, 'knowledge = management' is=20 being used simply as a synonym for 'information management'. This has = been=20 referred to by David Weinberger, citing Adina Levin as the originator, = as 'search=20 and replace marketing' in reporting the KM Summit of 1998:

'Andy Moore, editor of KM World and the event's genial host, = asked=20 the group how you reply to a customer who says, "Isn't this just=20 search-and-replace marketing?" That is, do you become a KM vendor = simply by=20 taking your old marketing literature and doing a search and replace, = changing,=20 say, "information retrieval" into "KM"? The question rattled the = group.=20 Answers sputtered forth. This was obviously a sore subject. It seems = to me=20 that there are three possible answers to the question "Is this=20 search-and-replace marketing?" given that this question expresses = customer=20 pain and suspicion:

No, we've added important new features designed to help you with = your KM=20 chores.=20
Sort of. We have the same features as always but have discovered = new=20 applications for them.=20
Yes, you pathetic loser.

The first two answers are = perfectly=20 acceptable. The third is perhaps a tad too honest to make it in this = imperfect=20 world, although undoubtedly there is some "kewl" company that is = contemplating=20 using this as the center of its advertising campaign. ("Companies will = love=20 that we're being so upfront with them, man.")' (Weinberger,=20 1998)

The software industry has become particularly prone to search and = replace=20 marketing, with almost everything from e-mail systems to Lotus Notes = groupware=20 being re-branded as 'knowledge management' software.

The same re-branding can be found in other places. Once upon a time = the=20 excellent business research site, http://www.brint.com/, had a large = section=20 devoted to information management but, in 1999, if I remember aright, I = wanted=20 to locate something I had previously found there and used my hot-link, = with no=20 result. Eventually, I found that everything that had previously been = located=20 under 'information management' was now identified as 'knowledge = management' and=20 brint.com was claiming to be the Web's best site for information on the=20 subject.

As noted above, the confusion of 'knowledge' as a synonym for = 'information'=20 is one of the most common effects of the 'knowledge management' fad. The = World=20 Bank site (of which more below) used to carry a document by the former = head of=20 'knowledge management', Stephen Denning, which is now available on = Denning's own=20 site. The following piece is taken from that paper:

The reach of the new technology for information sharing: = Many=20 factors have transformed the way in which organizations now view = information,=20 but perhaps the pivotal development has been the dramatically extended = reach=20 of know-how through new information technology. Rapidly falling costs = of=20 communications and computing and the extraordinary growth and = accessibility of=20 the World Wide Web present new opportunities for information-based=20 organizations, to share knowledge more widely and cheaply than ever = before.=20 Thus organizations with operations and employees around the world are = now able=20 to mobilize their expertise from whatever origin to apply rapidly to = new=20 situations. As a result, clients are coming to expect from global=20 organizations, not merely the know-how of the particular team that has = been=20 assigned to the task, but the very best that the organization as a = whole has=20 to offer. Information sharing is thus enabling - and forcing - = institutions=20 that are international in the scope of their operations, to become = truly=20 global in character by enabling information transfer to occur across = large=20 distances within a very short time. (Denning, = 1998)=20

However, I have changed all of the occurrences of 'knowledge' to=20 'information' and, as far as I can see, it makes no difference at all to = the=20 sense of the piece.

The 'search and replace' strategy is also seen in action in KPMG = Consulting's=20 (2000) report on 'knowledge management'. The report notes:

Companies still see knowledge management as a purely = technology=20 solution
Organisations have adopted a number of relevant = technologies for=20 KM purposes. 93% of respondents used the Internet to access external=20 knowledge, 78% used an intranet, 63% used data warehousing or mining=20 technologies, 61% document management systems, 49% decision support, = 43%=20 groupware and 38% extranets. (KPMG = Consulting,=20 2000: 3

All of the technologies mentioned, of course, are information = handling=20 systems or database technologies, but for the purposes of the exercise, = they are=20 re-named 'relevant technologies for KM purposes'

Finally, international organizations are not protected from the lure = of=20 'knowledge management'. The European Union's Fifth Framework Programme = made=20 great play with the concept of 'the Information Society'; however, when = the=20 Sixth Framework Programme was announced all the material that formerly = appeared=20 under the heading of 'the Information Society' appeared under the new = heading -=20 'the Knowledge Society'! No conceptual differences - just search and = replace=20 marketing.

Tacit knowledge

Mention has been made more than once of the idea of 'tacit knowledge' = and the=20 idea of 'capturing' such knowledge is often presented as central to = 'knowledge=20 management'. However, what is 'tacit knowledge'? The term originates = with Polanyi = (1958),=20 chemist turned philosopher of science, and has been described as:

'the idea that certain cognitive processes and/or behaviors = are=20 undergirded by operations inaccessible to consciousness' (Barbiero,=20 n.d.)

This is the key point about Polanyi's concept: 'tacit' means = 'hidden', tacit=20 knowledge is hidden knowledge, hidden even from the consciousness of the = knower.=20 This is why Polanyi used the phrase 'We know more than we can tell.' A = phrase=20 parroted even by those who mis-use the idea and believe that this hidden = knowledge, inaccessible to the consciousness of the knower, can somehow = be=20 'captured'.

Polanyi equates tacit knowledge with 'acts of comprehension':

'tacit knowing achieves comprehension by indwelling, and... = all=20 knowledge consists of or is rooted in such acts of comprehension' (Polanyi,=20 1958)

In other words, 'tacit knowledge' involves the process of = comprehension, a=20 process which is, itself, little understood. Consequently, tacit = knowledge is an=20 inexpressible process that enables an assessment of phenomena in the = course of=20 becoming knowledgeable about the world. In what sense, then, can it be = captured?=20 The answer, of course, is that it cannot be 'captured' - it can only be=20 demonstrated through our expressible knowledge and through our acts.

How did the idea that tacit knowledge could be 'captured' arise? The = guilty=20 party appears to be Nonaka, = (1991) and=20 Nonaka = and=20 Takeuchi (1995), who appear to have either misunderstood Polanyi's = work, or=20 deliberately distorted it to enable them to construct the well-known = two-by-two=20 diagram.

Having cited Polanyi as the source of the idea of 'tacit knowledge' = and=20 having noted that Polanyi refers to the process of 'indwelling', whereby = people=20 create knowledge of the world around them, Nonaka and Takeuchi go on to = state=20 that:

While Polanyi argues the contents for tacit knowledge = further in a=20 philosophic context, it is also possible to expand his = idea=20 [my emphasis] in a more practical direction. (Nonaka = &=20 Takeuchi, 1995: 60)

They then note that:

Mental models, such as schemata, paradigms, perspectives, = beliefs=20 and viewpoints help individuals to perceive and define their world. = (Nonaka = &=20 Takeuchi, 1995: 60)

and include such models within tacit knowledge. However, if such = models can=20 be expressed by the person they constitute not tacit knowledge, which, = as noted=20 earlier, is inexpressible, but expressible knowledge, which, when = expressed,=20 becomes information. Such previously unexpressed but expressible = knowledge may=20 be termed 'implicit' knowledge.

In fact, the example cited by Nonaka & = Takeuchi (1995:63-64) makes it clear that implicit knowledge is = being talked=20 about here. The case of bread-making is discussed and the fact that the = head=20 baker of the Osaka International Hotel twisted the dough as well as = stretching=20 it, is given as an example of 'tacit' knowledge - but no-one appears to = have=20 asked the baker how he made the bread! I have no doubt that (as a = bread-maker=20 myself) that he would have been able to describe his bread-making = process in=20 detail, including the process of twisting. The approach appears to be, = "If I see=20 something I hadn't noticed before, or knew of before, then those = actions, or=20 whatever, must constitute tacit knowledge." As a research approach this = is=20 somewhat lacking, nor is it very helpful as a guide to discovering = practice. One=20 must also bear in mind the cultural context of this example: I asked a = Japanese=20 colleague whether someone acting the role of apprentice in Japan would = think of=20 questioning the 'master' and, of course, she shook her head and smiled. = The=20 'apprentices' in the example would never have thought of asking.

Nonaka and Takeuchi put forward the proposition, embodied in the = diagram,=20 that 'tacit knowledge' is somehow derived from explicit knowledge and, = by other=20 means, is made explicit. However, it is clear, from the analysis above, = that=20 implicit knowledge, which is not normally expressed, but may be = expressed, is=20 actually intended here. Implicit knowledge is that which we take for = granted in=20 our actions, and which may be shared by others through common experience = or=20 culture. For example, in establishing a production facility in a foreign = country, a company knows it needs to acquire local knowledge of 'how = things are=20 done here'. Such knowledge may not be written down, but is known by = people=20 living and working in the culture and is capable of being written down, = or=20 otherwise conveyed to those who need to know. The knowledge is implicit = in the=20 way people behave towards one another, and towards authority, in that = foreign=20 culture, and the appropriate norms of behaviour can be taught to the = newcomers.=20 Implicit knowledge, in other words, is expressible: tacit knowledge is = not, and=20 Nonaka would have saved a great deal of confusion had he chosen the more = appropriate term. The critical reader might ask him/herself: 'Does it = make any=20 difference to the argument if, in the diagram, we replace "tacit = knowledge" with=20 "knowledge" and "explicit knowledge" with "information"?'

The people perspective

The literature of 'knowledge management' claims that the 'people' = dimension=20 is more important than the technological (in spite of the fact that most = of the=20 same literature is heavily oriented towards technology use). As noted = earlier,=20 Sveiby = (2001a)=20 holds that the 'management of people' is one of the two tracks of = 'knowledge=20 management', and the work of the World Bank is held up by a number of = writers as=20 evidence for the power of the 'people management' track of 'knowledge=20 management'.

However, when we examine the World Bank's 'knowledge management' = strategy,=20 the reality (as with the technology track) bears little relation to the=20 rhetoric. The 'vision' of the World Bank is that it should become not = simply a=20 financial agency but the world's 'Knowledge Bank'.

With the retirement of Stephen Denning as head of the Bank's = 'knowledge=20 management' initiative, and his re-emergence as a 'knowledge management' = consultant (see, http://www.stevedenning.com/), = the Bank=20 has re-thought its strategy and removed the earlier documents. The = rhetoric is=20 no longer about 'knowledge management', but about 'knowledge sharing'. = The new=20 initiative as described by the Bank's Managing Director, Mamphela = Ramphele=20 (2002) still has four elements, but these are now expressed as = follows:

The first, is fostering policy, regulatory, and network = readiness, by=20 supporting the development of an adequate enabling environment for=20 efficiency, competition, and innovation in knowledge sharing, and=20 development of information and communication technologies.

The second element focuses on building human capacity for the = knowledge=20 economy, by promoting excellence in education, from the basic to the = tertiary level, as well as the new skills needed for information and = communication technologies. Associated activities include work = towards=20 getting schools, classrooms, and libraries online, and promoting = development=20 of innovative approaches that extend the reach of education and = training,=20 such as distance learning, community-based training, and networking = of=20 educational institutions.

The third element of the strategy focuses on continued efforts = to expand=20 basic connectivity and access, and invest in information technology=20 applications. Key activities include mobilizing resources to improve = information infrastructure, working on ways to reduce the cost of=20 connectivity, supporting community access programs, and developing = local=20 content and entrepreneurial information technology opportunities. =

The final key element of the strategy is focused on promoting = the=20 generation and sharing of global knowledge, through support for = knowledge=20 networking, global research, and communities of practice. This will = focus on=20 creating and applying the knowledge necessary to stimulate and = facilitate=20 the transition to the knowledge economy-as well as the knowledge = necessary=20 to reap its full economic, social, and cultural benefits.=20

In fact, these are almost identical to the original four, the second = and=20 third have the same titles. The focus continues to be heavily=20 technology-oriented and one might be forgiven for imagining that the = real aim of=20 the World Bank is to help U.S.-based global industries to sell more = hardware and=20 software to the developing world. Given that the Bank is located in = Washington,=20 D.C., where one of the biggest industries is the lobby industry, this = would not=20 be surprising.

Another 'knowledge management' legend, promulgated by Davenport= (1997)=20 is that Microsoft has a 'knowledge management' strategy. What does this = turn out=20 to be?

The knowledge base for Microsoft IT must always be current.=20 Therefore, the IT group has focused heavily on the issue of = identifying and=20 maintaining knowledge competencies.

In other words, this 'knowledge management strategy' is a training = programme.=20 Of course, it is wrapped up in the jargon of the day:

'The project, called Skills Planning "und" Development (thus = affectionately known as "SPUD") is focused not on entry level = competencies,=20 but rather on those needed and acquired to stay on the leading edge of = the=20 workplace.'

and

'Development of a structure of competency types and levels;=20
Defining the competencies required for particular jobs;=20
Rating the performance of individual employees in particular = jobs based=20 on the competencies;=20
Implementing the knowledge competencies in an online system;=20
Linkage of the competency model to learning offerings.'=20

However, a training programme remains a training programme and the = fact that=20 a high-technology company like Microsoft needs knowledgeable people and = needs to=20 maintain their knowledge bases hardly seems remarkable.

There is more to the 'people perspective' than the efforts of the = World Bank,=20 of course. The principal aim of this arm of 'knowledge management' is to = improve=20 the sharing of information in organizations and one of the chief ways in = which=20 this is attempted is by encouraging personal networking and the = development of=20 'communities of practice'.

Lesser = and=20 Storck (2001), in a paper referred to earlier, in the analysis of = journal=20 papers, and citing a paper by Storck and Hill (2000), draw attention to = the=20 difference between teams and communities of practice:

Team relationships are established when the organization assigns = people to=20 be team members. Community relationships are formed around practice.=20
Similarly, authority relationships within the team are = organizationally=20 determined. Authority relationships in a community of practice emerge = through=20 interaction around expertise.=20
Teams have goals, which are often established by people not on the = team.=20 Communities are only responsible to their members.=20
Teams rely on work and reporting processes that are = organizationally=20 defined. Communities develop their own processes.

Of course these distinctions would be meaningful if organizations = were=20 structured in such a way as to encourage the creation of 'communities' = in which=20 members owed allegiance only to one another and had the autonomy to = develop=20 their own ways of working. Expertise might well then be shared. However, = organizations are not like this and business organizations in particular = are=20 certainly not always like this. Business organizations (especially = public=20 companies) are generally driven by the idea of 'shareholder value', = which=20 emphasises short-term strategies that are likely to increase the share = value.=20 Chief of these strategies are those that seek cost savings, leading = often to a=20 rather blinkered choice of the reduction of staff to achieve savings. = Coupled=20 with the kind of corporate misgovernance that we have seen in the cases = of=20 Enron, WorldCom, and others, one must doubt that business organizations = are busy=20 building the kind of corporate cultures that will actually encourage=20 'communities of practice'

Conclusion

The inescapable conclusion of this analysis of the 'knowledge = management'=20 idea is that it is, in large part, a management fad, promulgated mainly = by=20 certain consultancy companies, and the probability is that it will fade = away=20 like previous fads. It rests on two foundations: the management of = information -=20 where a large part of the fad exists (and where the 'search and replace=20 marketing' phenomenon is found), and the effective management of work = practices.=20 However, these latter practices are predicated upon a Utopian idea of=20 organizational culture in which the benefits of information exchange are = shared=20 by all, where individuals are given autonomy in the development of their = expertise, and where 'communities' within the organization can determine = how=20 that expertise will be used. Sadly, we are a long way removed from that = Utopia:=20 whatever businesses claim about people being their most important = resource, they=20 are never reluctant to rid themselves of that resource (and the = knowledge it=20 possesses) when market conditions decline. In the U.K. we can point to = British=20 Airways, which, in the aftermath of the terrorist attack of the 11th = September=20 2001, paid off more than 7,000 of its 'knowledge resources' - financial=20 observers suggested that they were simply waiting for a suitable excuse = to do=20 so, management having taken disastrous business decisions which had = reduced=20 profitability. We can also point to Barclays Bank, with profits of more = than =A32=20 billion in 2001 and profit growth that year of almost 3.0%, which, = nevertheless,=20 paid off some 10% of its total global workforce. No imagination appears = to have=20 been used by either of these companies to determine ways in which their = 'most=20 important resource' might be more effectively employed to increase = turnover and=20 profits.

The two companies mentioned are not atypical and we have to ask, 'If = getting=20 promotion, or holding your job, or finding a new one is based on the = knowledge=20 you possess - what incentive is there to reveal that knowledge and share = it?'

This is not to say that enabling people to contribute effectively to = the=20 management of organizations is impossible and that sharing knowledge and = enabling people to use their creativity in innovative ways in = organizations is=20 impossible - simply that it is very difficult, and that it does not = reduce to=20 some simplistic concept of 'knowledge management'! It demands a change = in=20 business culture, from the macho Harvard Business School model, to = something=20 more thoughtful and understanding of what motivates human beings. = Organizations=20 need to learn to think about problems, rather than grab at proffered = 'solutions'=20 - which often turn out to be expensive side-tracks away from the main = issues.=20 For example, if you have a poorly-rewarded and, hence, poor sales force, = no=20 amount of data warehousing (another so-called 'knowledge management' = tool) is=20 going to give you good customer relations.

A reasonable question to ask, at this stage, is, 'Why now?'. Why has=20 'knowledge management' achieved such a fashionable status is the = business world?=20 This=20 question was asked on the KNOW-ORG mailing list and my response was = as=20 follows:

First, and largely because of a fixation on internal=20 organizational data, the term 'information' has become almost = synonymous with=20 data in the minds of organizational heads. For example, I've been told = that=20 the National Electronic Library for Health uses the term 'Knowledge' = because=20 in the NHS information=3Ddata and a different term was needed. We have = to lay=20 this, I think, at the feet of the information systems profession whose = focus=20 for years was data and data definitions, etc. In fact, they dealt not = with=20 information systems but with data systems.

Secondly, and = opportunely=20 for the software houses and IT firms, 'km' came along just as they = were being=20 hit by the wave of scepticism over the possibility of IT ever = delivering more=20 than problems - and certainly never likely to deliver productivity and = performance. 'Whoops, we've cracked it!' cried the IBMs and MSofts of = this=20 world - 'We should have been dealing with 'knowledge' all along, and = now we=20 are - Lotus Notes is no longer groupware and personal information = management,=20 it's KnowledgeWare!' So they are happily marketing the same product = under a=20 new name.

Thirdly, the organization and management boys = finally began=20 to realise that all this text that people were creating on = word-processors,=20 etc., needed to be managed effectively and, indeed, organized, shared = and=20 disseminated more effectively, but they couldn't use 'information = management'=20 because that was 'information systems' and data, wasn't it? So it must = be=20 'knowledge', right? If we can only get people to share their = 'knowledge'=20 performance must improve because it is the communication barriers that = are=20 preventing the free flow of 'knowledge' (i.e., information). So, now, = every=20 aspect of organization and management theory has to have a 'knowledge' = dimension, otherwise you aren't in the game. In the literature, of = course,=20 this amounts to the token use of the term 'knowledge management' and = the use=20 of 'knowledge' as a synonym for 'information'.

Fourthly, at = the=20 forefront of all this were the management consultancies - why? Because = BPR and=20 Organizational Learning were running out of steam. Amusingly, all=20 organizational learning work appears to come under the heading of 'km' = - more=20 search and replace marketing. So, the consultancies grabbed at km in = order to=20 have something to sell at the end of the 90s.

Finally,=85 most = (or at=20 least many) departments of information management or information = science, and=20 departments of information systems in academia, are somewhat low on = the totem=20 pole in most of their institutions, and each needs to differentiate = itself=20 from the other in order to try to work its way up that greasy pole, so = both=20 have seized on km as an aid in the struggle. I foresee turf-wars over = which=20 department, where there is one of each, has the right to run degrees = in km.=20 Where only one of the kind exists, it will seek to make km = all-embracing of=20 management, computer science, information systems, etc., etc. - = because the=20 logic leads nowhere else :-) 'If WE deal with knowledge - then how can = anyone=20 else presume to do so?' (Wilson,=20 2001)

I see no reason to change my opinions as a result of the analysis = carried out=20 for this paper, but I would add that, according to the rhetoric of = 'knowledge=20 management', 'mind' becomes 'manageable', the content of mind can be = captured or=20 down-loaded and the accountant's dream of people-free production, = distribution=20 and sales is realized - 'knowledge' is now in the database, recoverable = at any=20 time. That may be Utopia for some, but not for many. Fortunately, like = most=20 Utopias, it cannot be realized.

This analysis of 'knowledge management' may not have much = significance to the=20 world of business practice, where the academic literature is rarely read = unless=20 filtered through the 'airport book'. One might argue that for = information=20 practitioners to call themselves (or for the organization to call them)=20 'Knowledge Managers' does no harm and may do some good, in terms of = giving a=20 higher profile to their role (even if a number of them are rather = embarrassed by=20 the title). However, the aim of the university and of those who work for = it is=20 to expose ideas to critical analysis and to inculcate in students the = same=20 abilities. It is, perhaps, a sad reflection on the way in which the = university,=20 world-wide, has changed from the 'temple' to the 'factory' (Beckman, = 1989)=20 that so many academics are prepared to jump on the bandwagon - one's = only=20 satisfaction is that the bandwagon lacks wheels.

Notes:
1. The data for 2002 were obtained on = 21st=20 February 2003 and some December journals may be published later. = (However, if=20 they are, their quality is under suspicion!)
2. This paper was = updated and=20 published as "The nonsense of knowledge management revisited". In Elena=20 Maceviciute and T.D. Wilson, (Eds.). Introducing information = management: an=20 Information Research reader. (pp. 151-164). London: Facet = Publishing,=20 2005.

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_udn=3D=3D"" || _udn=3D=3D"none") { _udn=3D""; return 1; }=0A= if (_udn=3D=3D"auto") {=0A= var d=3D_ubd.domain;=0A= if (d.substring(0,4)=3D=3D"www.") {=0A= d=3Dd.substring(4,d.length);=0A= }=0A= _udn=3Dd;=0A= }=0A= _udn =3D _udn.toLowerCase(); =0A= if (_uhash=3D=3D"off") return 1;=0A= return _uHash(_udn);=0A= }=0A= function _uHash(d) {=0A= if (!d || d=3D=3D"") return 1;=0A= var h=3D0,g=3D0;=0A= for (var i=3Dd.length-1;i>=3D0;i--) {=0A= var c=3DparseInt(d.charCodeAt(i));=0A= h=3D((h << 6) & 0xfffffff) + c + (c << 14);=0A= if ((g=3Dh & 0xfe00000)!=3D0) h=3D(h ^ (g >> 21));=0A= }=0A= return h;=0A= }=0A= function _uFixA(c,s,t) {=0A= if (!c || c=3D=3D"" || !s || s=3D=3D"" || !t || t=3D=3D"") return "-";=0A= var a=3D_uGC(c,"__utma=3D"+_udh+".",s);=0A= var lt=3D0,i=3D0;=0A= if ((i=3Da.lastIndexOf(".")) > 9) {=0A= _uns=3Da.substring(i+1,a.length);=0A= _uns=3D(_uns*1)+1;=0A= a=3Da.substring(0,i);=0A= if ((i=3Da.lastIndexOf(".")) > 7) {=0A= lt=3Da.substring(i+1,a.length);=0A= 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Information Research, Vol. 8 No. 1, October = 2002

The nonsense of 'knowledge management'

T.D. = WilsonProfessor=20 EmeritusUniversity of Sheffield, UKVisiting Professor, = H=F6gskolan i=20 Bor=E5sBor=E5s, Sweden

Introduction

'Knowledge' and 'information'

What is 'knowledge management'?

Decision Support Systems

Journal of Management Information Systems

Wirtschaftsinformatik

European Journal of Information Systems

Expert Systems with Applications

Nfd Information Wissenschaft und Praxis

IBM Systems Journal

Journal of Strategic Information Systems

Journal of Management Studies

Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association

The consultancy view

Accenture=20

Cap Gemini = Ernst and=20 Young

Deloitte = and=20 Touche

Ernst and = Young

KPMG = Consulting

McKinsey = and=20 Company

PricewaterhouseCoopers

Conclusion on the consultancies.

The view from the business schools

'Search and replace marketing'

Tacit knowledge

The people perspective

Conclusion

References

How to cite this paper:

Contents

Web=20 Counter

Home

T.D. = Wilson
Professor=20 Emeritus
University of Sheffield, UK
Visiting Professor, = H=F6gskolan i=20 Bor=E5s
Bor=E5s, Sweden